Evolution of concerto
The
Italian word concerto means concerted
musical performance. The suggested origin of the word in Latin, concertare, means to contend or dispute and this is
believed to be the idea behind the first concerto type music. The concertato style -antiphony- was first used by Gabrieli in his motets (1587). It is based on repeated
alternation of tutti (all orchestra) - solo sections.
In later examples (from Torelli), the tutti ritornello circumscribed the key and determined the
form. Three factors interacted with each other in the evolution of concerto:
(1) concertato style: the device of opposed bodies of
sound and tutti-solo contrast, (2) concerto style:
homophonic contrast originated from the rise of continuo, (3) ritornello form:
appeared shortly after the concerto style had been established. The earliest
concerti grosso of Corelli
made great use of opposed groups, only small use of concerto style and no
ritornello. The later orchestral concertos of Torelli,
Taglietti, Abaco and Handel
dispensed with tutti-solo contrast and used more
emphatically concerto style, and also ritornello form. In the concertos of Vivaldi, Albinoni and Bach all
three factors were united in complete harmony.
In
the 1660s, string players in Bologna began to play one-to-a-part pieces with
more than one player to a part. Cazzati published the
first trumpet sonatas which were simple and homophonic, the style which
influenced the concerto style. In the 1670s, Alessandro Stradella
used small and large groups of strings (concertino and concerto grosso) in aria accompaniments combining the principle of
contrast, orchestral forces and strong sense of tonality for the first time [in
the serenata Qual
prodigio e ch'io miri, 1675]. For the greater part of the seventeenth
century, it would have been hard to define the precise difference between
concerto and sonata. In the beginning of the late Baroque, sonata was
established as the main instrumental genre. Since sonatas could be performed orchestrally, there was no clear division between the two
genres. By 1682, Corelli had written the first
classical concerto grosso of the Baroque era.
Concerto grosso was an expansion and elaboration of
contrapuntal trio sonata which may be played by as few as four or, by doubling
the parts many times, by up to 60 players. If necessary, it can be played by a
trio sonata ensemble since the orchestral tutti is
only used to punctuate the cadences. Before the ritornello form came into
use, the movements were in binary, ternary or fugal forms.
Corelli's concerti grosso
(written in 1680s) are the conservative model of this genre. They follow the
slow-fast-slow-fast plan of sonata da chiesa. The concertino's material is self-sufficient and ripieno only accompanies playing chords when it is not
doubling the soloists. During its evolution, first the initial slow movement
was discarded as the concerto idiom came into its own in the first movement.
Next the outer movements changed their form. Towards the end of the
seventeenth century, the fugal allegro (first/fast) movement of trio sonata was
abandoned in concerto and replaced by the ritornello form in the mature Baroque
concerto (from about 1690). In a Corellian concerto grosso: there are multiple movements, concertino plays
throughout (ripieno doubling), there is no
ritornello, phrases are short and regular in length, and the movements are
usually in binary form.
The
Bolognese composer Torelli was the first to introduce
solo concerto which was further developed by Albinoni
and Vivaldi. Torelli also
introduced the ritornello form and the use of three contrasting movements which
was firmly established by Vivaldi who also added more
virtuoso writing for soloist(s). The earliest example of the mature Baroque
concerto is by Torelli. Six of the 12 works in his
Op. 8 Concerti Grossi (1709) are true solo violin
concertos. In his Op.8, No.8 Concerto for solo violin and string
orchestra, there are three (open) ritornellos in expected keys in the last
movement (tonic to dominant; relative major to subdominant; tonic). Modulations
were occurring within the ritornellos. Vivaldi's
first concertos (Op. 3) were published in Amsterdam in 1711. He used close
ritornellos in varying lengths with several themes in
his concertos. He added the virtuoso element in solo parts. The Venetian type
concerto superseded the Corellian type with its three
movement plan, ritornello design and virtuoso solo parts. The classical
examples of Baroque concerto grosso are: Corelli’s Op. 6 (No.1-12) and Handel’s Op. 6
(No.1-12) (Corellian style) and JS Bach’s six
Brandenburg concertos (Vivaldian style).
JS
Bach's concertos fall into two main groups: the Brandenburg concertos (concerto
grosso, 1721) and the concertos for violin and
clavier for a single soloist or a pair. There is no essential difference in the
outline: usually three movements (fast-slow-fast). The keystone of the
construction in the outer movements is usually ritornello (punctuated by
episodes) and in slow movements, ground bass. Tutti
always join in the ritornello and the intervening episodes are given to the
soloists. These episodes may consist of entirely fresh material or may develop
ideas contained in the ritornello itself. The concerto movements not in
ritornello form may use binary form or a dance movement. In slow movements,
Bach often uses an ostinato bass and above it writes
a long elaborate melody (Violin Concertos in A minor and E). In the first
movement of the concerto for two violins, JS Bach anticipates the classical
concerto by using two contrasting themes.
Handel
also wrote both solo concertos and concerto grosso.
The solo concertos are for the organ and the concerti grosso
are laid out quite differently from the Brandenburgs.
In Op. 6 (1739), Handel's concertinos consist of strings only (the Brandenburgs have different instrumentation in each one).
In Handel's works there is much more variety in form. Handel prefers to have
four, five or even six movements and usually finishes with a dance movement.
His choice for a multimovement concerto is a Corellian feature, but he used the ritornello form in fast
movements.
The
dominant motive of the Baroque concerto was not a display of virtuosity
but contrast of tone. The Baroque solo concerto lived on during the Classical
era with some of its basic features changed. Its structure was remodelled under the influence of the sonata form. The most
important event during the transitional period was the switch from the
harpsichord to the piano. Beethoven was the first great composer who never
wrote for the harpsichord (Mozart's early concertos for keyboard were for
harpsichord). In the classical concerto, the role of the soloist was
drastically altered and their relationship to the orchestra revised. The
earlier concerto primarily explored the contrast between one or several
soloists and a larger group of accompanying strings. Excessive technical
difficulties were usually absent in the solo parts. The classical concerto, on
the other hand, was written for virtuoso who wanted to display their mastery of
the instrument. The scores even allotted space for cadenzas in which the
soloist was free to interpolate brilliant passages. In the
classical era, the concerto grosso transformed into
the sinfonia concertante.
This form was most popular in France and Mozart wrote his during his stay in
Paris in 1778. Beethoven contributed to the repertory with his triple concerto
in C major (for violin, cello and piano).
It
is universally agreed that it was Mozart who shaped the lines of the modern
concerto. The transition period consists of composers such as JC Bach, CPE
Bach, Michael Haydn, Joseph Haydn, Dittersdorf, Boccherini, Clementi and Dussek. Among those, JC Bach can be said the one who
contributed to the development of classical concerto most, mainly by
influencing Mozart. In his Op. 7 concertos, the second subjects are evident and
also their feminine character is obvious. Mozart's concerto form is based on
the ritornello principle but incorporated the sonata principle. There is an
opening by tutti remaining in the tonic, then the
solo joins in and the opening material is repeated (which led to the term double
exposition). The double exposition is a wrong description since the two
expositions are normally dissimilar in thematic content. The second exposition
may omit some themes of the first exposition and often adds new ones (it may
even start with a new theme as in K482). In his keyboard concertos which
were models for Mozart, JC Bach invariably introduced the soloist with the
first subject of the opening ritornello. In extreme cases, however, as in
Mozart's Violin Concerto in A, the two expositions may have very little in
common. In the solo part somewhere the second subject is presented. Then the
themes are developed and recapitulated. Often, there is no proper development
in terms of motivic development but a tonally fluid,
partially non-thematic fantasy section. The development of themes is subsidiary
to the soloist's display. The recapitulation reconciles the two forces; the
soloist and orchestra are now together, whereas in the opening they were
separate. Towards the end of the recapitulation, the orchestra builds up to a
climax and pauses on the second inversion of the tonic triad. This is the
signal for the cadenza. Beethoven in his G major piano concerto (No. 4), gave the opening bars to the solo by way of innovation
(the only earlier example is one of Mozart's early piano concertos, K471 in Eb). In
Mendelssohn's violin concerto, the soloist enters at once and there is no
opening tutti (also in the concerto, the cadenza in
the first movement comes at the end of the development). A typical Mozart concerto
first movement is structured in the ritornello aria form as follows:
Opening
ritornello in tonic finishing with a perfect cadence in tonic
First
solo starting in the tonic key moving to the dominant
key finishing with a trill on its dominant seventh
A
very brief orchestral ritornello (in the dominant key) finishing with a perfect
cadence in the dominant
Fantasy
section for the soloist and the orchestra modulating, and ending on a dominant
pedal to dramatize the return to the tonic
Recapitulation
in the tonic: all forces together (reconciliation) with a reprise of the
opening material. Like the first solo, this section builds up to a climactic
dominant seventh trill (in the tonic key)
Final ritornello with a cadenza and ending with the final
cadence. This model, despite not being a binary form, observes the
sonata principle. In the first solo section, the music invariably moves to the
dominant and a new theme is heard at this point. After the tonally unstable
fantasy section, all themes are recapitulated in the tonic.
Slow
movements are the most lyrical ones and frequently in ternary form (or air and
variation) although Mozart sometimes used ritornello form too. It became
popular to base the slow movement on a well-known operatic aria. The outer
sections usually frame a contrasted central section. The last movements are
frequently in rondo form and may introduce some exotic material. In all
Beethoven concertos, the last movement is in rondo form and the soloist
introduces the main subject. The concerto form usually consists of three
movements as there is no opportunity for the solo instrument in a scherzo-like
movement as in symphonies.
In Beethoven's concertos, the relationship between solo and tutti is one of Classic balance and proportion, while in many virtuoso concertos of the later nineteenth century, the orchestral accompaniment provides some background in front of which the performer may shine. This greater emphasis on the solo instrument is one of the characteristics of Romantic concerto. Most romantic concertos start directly with the solo instrument rather than orchestra. The Romantic composers preferred the sonata form in the first movements and tended to let the soloist and the orchestra share the exposition from its beginning. The tension formerly created by the long orchestral ritornello vanished and the two forces are accepted as equal partners. A feeling of more rhapsodic style became evident and a less rigid attitude to musical form appeared. Typical examples of romantic concertos are Liszt's Piano Concerto No. 1 in Eb, and Bruch's Violin Concerto No.1 in G minor. As last appeared in the works of Rachmaninov (1873-1943) in the twentieth century, brilliant solo parts and dramatic orchestration, melodic richness, extended lyrical tunes and a technique of development that is nearer the variation than the symphonic development characterize the romantic concerto. This contrasts with the classical concerto in which the display element is carefully integrated and any real fireworks are reserved for the cadenzas. Brahms expanded the concerto form to symphonic dimensions with his two piano concertos. The latest innovation in the concerto form in the twentieth century was the Concerto for Orchestra (for example by Bartok) in which different players and groups of players in the orchestra have varying prominent role in the concerto. This resembles the earlier ripieno concertos.
M.Tevfik Dorak, B.A. (Hons)
Last updated on Dec
31, 2000